Origin and Phylogeny of Vascular and Non-Vascular Plant

Overview of Plant Evolution

·         Proterozoic — Green algal evolution

·         Mid paleozoic — First land flora

·         Late paleozoic — Coal forests: early vascular flora

·         Latest paleozoic — seed plants, early (Gymnosperms

·         Mesozoic — Gymnosperms rand reptiles) dominant

·         Late Mesozoic — first flowering plant life

·         Cenozoic — coevolution of flowering flora and insect pollinators

The beginning and early evolution of land flowers is stated to be in the mid-Palaeozoic era, between about 480 and 360 million years ago. More than five hundred million years ago, the algal ancestors of plant life may also have carpeted moist fringes of lakes and coastal salt marshes.
Green algae (charophytes) are regarded as the ancestors of flora so, the evolution of vegetation proposed from algae. The closest spouse and children are positioned with the clade Charaophycea these share a frequent ancestor with the clade. Chlorophyta consist of inexperienced algae that have complicated multi cell bodies, and are photosynthetic eukaryotes.

Plant Diversification

·         plant fossils relationship returned to 475 MYA

·         one the primary way to distinguish companies of vegetation is to classify them as: vascular & non-vascular

·         vascular tissue - great gadget fashioned by using cells joined into tubes

·         conduct water and vitamins

·         those except for these tubes - non-vascular flora

·         bryophytes: the time period used to refer to all non-vascular vegetation

·         do no longer shape a monophyletic crew or clade

·         known popularly as the mosses, liverworts and hornworts

·         debate as to how they are associated with every different

·         don’t possess the superior diversifications of vascular vegetation (e.g. roots & leaves)

·         they do share many attributes with vascular plants

·         vascular plants: clade that consists of 93% of all surviving plant species

·         categorized into smaller clades:

1. Lycophytes - membership mosses

2. Pteryophytes -ferns

3. Gymnosperms

4. Angiosperms

·         Land plants: traits key derived features determined in plants:

1. alternation of generations & multicellular, structured embryos

2. walled spores produced in sporangia

3. multicellular gametangia

4. apical meristems

From algae to moss to seedless, vascular flora to seed-bearing vegetation to finally… flowering plants. Early land plant life reproduced with spores that would swim (with little whipping tails referred to as flagella) thru moist soil and locate the lady organs. This is why they wanted to be in continuously damp environments and early flora solely existed close to shores and streams.
Without a strong vascular system, plant life couldn’t get taller than a couple toes max and most have been very shut to the ground. Plants finally advanced to have vessels and these had been in a position to develop very tall and clutch greater daylight for photosynthesis (literally overshadowing the competitors) and their spores had been capable to be blown at increased distances due to the higher beginning heights. Seedless, vascular flowers such as ferns fashioned large historic forests in low-lying wetlands in the course of the Carboniferous length (360–299 million years ago).
These historic forests of ferns gave us current-day coal. In the center of this period, a big extinction tournament passed off due to climate changes. When these ferns died, the flora-shaped peat deposits ultimately shaped coal. Coal, oil, and herbal gasoline are fossil fuels. Oil and herbal gasoline fashioned from marine organisms; coal fashioned from seedless plants.

Random fact: Insects used to develop an awful lot large due to the fact the quantity of oxygen in the surroundings used to be 40% (double of today). Seeds accelerated the success fee of the flora due to the fact they contained endosperm (nutrients packaged in with the embryo) that gave the seeds the preliminary assets they wished to attain a respectable dimension to survive. Seeds are additionally essential due to the fact they ought to be definitely removed from the exterior environment and have been included from desiccation (dryness), so they may want to be dormant for lengthy intervals of time for the duration of droughts and efficaciously be much less prone to extinction. They can actually ride out the hardest durations and soar again to lifestyles when stipulations are good. The first seed-bearing plants, like the ginkgo and conifers (such as pines and firs), did now not produce flowers.

Angiosperms are flowering vegetation and are the most profitable and various of the land plants. Flowers are highly modified leaves whose principal factor is for reproduction. Another weblog put up will be on the way about how they coevolved collectively with insects.

Ozone and it's Layer deplation

Ozone

• ·         O₃ or trioxygen
• ·         Pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell
• ·         Harmful to breath
• ·         occurs in the Earth's upper atmosphere. (the stratosphere) and lower atmosphere (the troposphere)
• ·         Ozone absorbe ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun and protect the life of Earth

Fig: Ozone layer of Earth

(Source: [1])

Formation of the Ozone layer

Basically ozone in the atmosphere form following two main processes:

• When UV radiation hit the stratosphere of the earth, the Oxygen molecule dissociates into atomic oxygen.
• Atomic oxygen quickly combine with molecular oxygen and form Ozone.

 

O_{2                    =}                      O   +   O

O   +   O₂           =          O₃

Ozone Layer Deplation

The process of reduction of the amount of ozone remaining in the earth's upper atmosphere OR thinning of the Earth's ozone layer in the stratosphere is called ozone layer depletion. The depletion is caused by the chemical compounds containing gaseous like carbon dioxide, chlorine, bromine, etc releasing from industries and by human activities. (One chlorine atom can break more than 100,000 molecules of ozone)

Fig: Process of Ozone Layer depletion

(Source: [1])

Various industries while producing substances like cement, soaps, solvents, refrigerator, A.C., use CFC_s (harmful substance) which is carried into high to the stratosphere by the wind; results decreasing of O₃ present.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

Man-Made Causes

Releasing of Chlorofluorocarbonsby solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

Unregulated Rocket Launches

Nitrogenous Compounds such as NO₂, NO, N₂O

Release of Methyl chloroform

Natural Causes

Sun-spots and stratospheric winds

volcanic eruptions

 

Effect of Ozone Deplation

1.     Effect on Human

Skin cancer, sunburn, malignant melanoma development, cataracts

2.     Effect on Plant

Reduce growth and physiological development

Bring change of nutrient

Changes the reproduction and life cycle

Decreases disease resistant capacity

Changes the lifecycle of phytoplankton

3.     Effect on Animal

Eye and Skin cancer

Reduction of marine animals

Change of food chain

4.     Effect on Biogeochemical cycle

Measure to prevent Ozone deplation

1.      Limiting private and old vehicles.

2.      Using eco-friendly household equipment

3.      Avoiding the use of pesticides

4.      Banning the use of Harmful gases

5.      Making rocket launching process more eco-friendly

For the protection of the Ozone layer in 1985, Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer  formalize international cooperation which results on 16 September 1987, signing of "Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer" by governments, scientists and industries owners. After the protocol; World Ozone layer protection Day is being celebrated on September 16,

References

1. eSchooltoday. (n.d.). your cool tips on Ozone Depletion. Retrived from https://eschooltoday.com/ozone-depletion/ozone-information-for-children.html.

2. Gupta, K. (20 September, 2016). Presentation on Ozone deplation. Retrived from https://www.slideshare.net/KirtiGupta59/presentation-on-ozone-depletion-66218134

3. Wuebbles, D. (19 Jan., 2011). Ozone depletion atmospheric phenomenon. Retrived from https://www.britannica.com/science/ozone-depletion/Ozone-layer-recovery

4. Guterres, A. (n.d.). International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer | 16 September. Retrived from United nation: https://www.un.org/en/observances/ozone-day#:~:text=In%201985%2C%20the%20world's%20governments,of%20all%20ozone%2Ddepleting%

Chure-Bhabar Region of Nepal

Chure-Bhabar Region of Nepal

The Terai region is a lowland region in the southern belt covering only 17% total land area of Nepal and about 48% of population live in this geographical region. Terai is full of different rivers mainly originated from high Himal and high Mountain. The Terai region itself is divided into 3 different regions namely Siwalik (Chure) region, Bhabar Pradesh region and Inner Terai.

The Churia or Chure (Siwalik) range rises sharply from the plains of Terai along the whole northern border of Nepal and extended from east to west in 33 districts. Chure is bordered by the Mahabharat range in the north and by the Bhabar and Terai in the south. The north of the terai region rises the narrow but continuous forest belt called Bhabar belt about 8-10 km running into the east to west along the foothills of the Shiwaliks.

The Chure-Bhabar region elevation ranges from 120 meters to nearly 2,000 meters consist of 26% of the Natural forest of Nepal. Of these forests, 3% is conifers (Chir pine), 83% hardwood (Sal forest and tropical mixed forest) and 14% mixed Chirpine and hardwood. The Siwalik hills composed loose materials originated from soft rocks, mudstones, sandstones, siltstone, shale, etc. Soils are mostly formed on sedimentary rocks with shallow and rough-textured soils.

The Chure region is spread from east to west together with the Bhabar region covering 13% of the total land area of the country and has approximately 60% of the total population. Nearly 60% of the Chure-Bhabar region is covered with forest. This belt is the water reservoir of the country and is rich in biodiversity too. Basically, the Bhabar region is comprised of pebbles that are brought down by rivers. This region is vulnerable to natural disasters such as landslides, erosion, flood and climate change and some anthropogenic factors like clearing of forest for cultivation, overexploitation of timber and forest products, uncontrolled grazing, excavation and extraction of sand and gravel, etc. per the estimates, 6,05,000 million cubic meters of sand, gravels, and stones are extracted every year from this region. Illegal excavation and extraction are assumed as twice as legal extraction.

Chure, Bhabar, and Inner terai collectively form Chure-Terai Madesh Landscape (CTML). CTML extends from east to west touching all seven states of Nepal; is a hotspot of biological diversity and recharges groundwater. The CTML represents 3 ecoregions, 9 forest types, 8 Important Plant Areas (IPAs), 14 Important Bird Areas (IBAs), 4 Ramsar sites, and 7 protected areas. This region is the habitat of 10 endemic, 6 protected and 3 Vulnerable (IUCN category) plant species. It is the home of 8 endangered and 15 protected mammals. Forest degradation, Habitat loss, poaching, and illegal hunting, illegal trade of threatened and endangered wildlife, etc are the major threats to the biodiversity of this region.

Chure-Bhabar region provides several ecosystem services to local people's livelihoods, has direct influence on the quality of the environment and has a high contribution to the regional and national economies. The Government of Nepal (GoN) has declared Chure landscape as Chure Environmental Protection Area in 2014, and also given special attention for curia conservation since 1970 (Fourth Five Year Plan)  and started Rastrapati Chure Conservation Programme with NRs 250 million years marked budget from the fiscal year 067/068 because of the high social-ecological importance of the Chure Bhabar region. The Ministry of Forest and soil conservation is leading and implementing Rashtrapati Chure Conservation Programme in 27 northern districts of Siwalik range through Department of Forest and Department of Soil and Watershed Management.

The Chure-Bhabar landscape linked with Middle mountain and Indian border, it should be addressed and conserved in a holistic and sustainable way respectively. There is a need to introduce new scientific ways of conservation and management of this region.

Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region

Introduction and biodiversity

The Hindu Kush Himalaya is one of the greatest mountain systems of the world; is a part of the Himalaya. It is extending over eight countries, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, covering 4.2 million. sq. km. It has more than 60,000 square kilometers of glaciers and 760,000 square kilometers of snow cover. This region is the massive storage of freshwater and is the source of 10 major Asian river basins (Amu Darya, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus Irrawaddy, Mekong, Salween, Tarim, Yangtze, and Yellow river), providing essential resources to 240 million peoples. And about 1.9 million depend on HKH for water, food, and Energy. The HKS region form the largest area of permanent ice cover outside of the North and South Poles, and so often referred to as "Third Pole".

Geographically, it is extended in 4.3 million sq. km. to Pamir, Karakoram, Tibetan Plateau, Indo-Burma, CHT-Bangladesh, and southeast China Mountain. 32% area of the HKH region is covered by all or part of 4 of 34  global Biodiversity hotspots ( Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Mountains of Southwest China, and Mountains of central Asia), 39% area by 488 protected areas. Other Regions found in HKH are, 60 Eco-regions (30 critical and 12 represents global 200 Eco-regions), 330 Important Birds and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), 53 Important Plant Areas(IPAs), 6 UNESCO Natural Heritage Sites, and 30 Ramsar Sites (40 high altitude lakes). More than 35% populations benefits indirectly from HKH resources and ecosystem services.

The HKH region consists mostly of diversified regions in the world. About 35 new species were found every year in the Eastern Himalayas between 1998 and 2008. This region is the home of rare and endangered species like tigers, elephants, musk deer, red panda, and snow leopards. Highly valuable threatened plants like Rhododendrons, orchids, and some rare medicinal plants (Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea) and wild edible plants also found in this region.

Table1: Distribution of total and endemic (in parentheses) species in the four biodiversity hotspots in the HKH

Biodiversity	Himalaya		Indo-Burma		Mountains of Southwest China		Mountains of Central Asia
	Total	Endemic	Total	Endemic	Total	Endemic	Total	Endemic
Plants	10,000	3,136	13,500	7,000	12,000	3,500	5,500	1,500
Mammals	300	12	433	73	237	5	143	6
Birds	977	15	1,266	64	611	2	489	0
Reptiles	176	48	522	204	92	15	59	1
Amphibians	105	42	286	154	90	8	7	4
Freshwater fish	269	33	1,262	553	92	23	27	5

(Source: Chettri & Sharma 2016; Wester, et al., 2019)

The rising mountains of the HKH region are vulnerable to natural calamities even without  human interferences due to its geologically fragile landscape style. In recent years, the biodiversity of Hindu Kush Himalaya region is changing/ declining due to rapid climate change, and major disruptions including natural disasters, globalization, overexploitation, land use and change, migration, infrastructure development, urbanization, Pollution (Black carbon and minerals dust), and invasive and alien species.

Table 2: Drivers of Environmental change

S.N.	Drivers
1	Direct Drivers	i. Climate change ii. Changes in land use/cover iii. Species introduction or removal iv. Technology adaption and use v. Harvest and resource consumption
2	Indirect Drivers	i. Demographic ii. Economic iii. Socio-political iv. Science and technology v. Culture and religious

Source: (Sharma, Tse-ring, Chhetri, & Shrestha, 2019)

 

According to the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region report of 2019, 70–80% of the region’s original habitat has already been lost and that loss may increase to 80–87% by 2100. Even the most ambitious goal set by the paris Agreement to limit global warming would lead to a 2.1 the spike in temperature in the HKH region, leading to the melting of 1/3 of the region's glaciers by 2100, potentially destabilizing Asia's rivers. The melting of these glaciers will put the threat on 1.9 billion people. Since the 1970s, about 50% of ice in the HKH region has disappeared as temperature have risen.

Various initiatives have been done by various institutions in the HKS region for landscape managements.

 

About 40% of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region is designated as protected areas but the implementation of conservation measures is patchy. Many of these areas are remote and authorities have little control over border regions sometimes plagued by conflict.

 

References:

 Sahasrabudhe, S., Mishra, U., Vasily, L., Thomas, S., & Chhetri, R. (2019). SUMMARY OF THE HINDU KUSH HIMALAYA ASSESSMENT REPORT. Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).

Sharma, E., Tse-ring, K., Chhetri, N., & Shrestha, A. (2019). Biodiversity in Hindu Kush Himalayas - Trends, Preception and Impact of climate change [Power point slide]. Retrieved from ICIMOD: http://www.icimod.org/resources/81

Walker, B. (2019, February 27). Hindu Kush Himalayas set for massive biodiversity loss. Retrieved from China Dialogue: https://chinadialogue.net/en/climate/11103

Chettri, N. & Sharma, E. (2016). Reconciling Mountain Biodiversity Conservation and Human Wellbeing: Drivers of Biodiversity Loss and New Approaches in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy. 82. 10.16943/ptinsa/2016/v82i1/48378.

 

P. Wester, A. Mishra, A. Mukherji, A. B. Shrestha (eds) (2019) The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment—Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People, Springer Nature Switzerland AG, Cham.